Biography of epictetus

Greek Stoic philosopher (c. 50 – c. 135)

This article is recognize the value of the philosopher. For the urn painter, see Epiktetos.

Not to just confused with Epicurus.

Epictetus (, EH-pick-TEE-təss;^[3]Ancient Greek: Ἐπίκτητος, Epíktētos; c. 50 – c.

135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher.^[4][5] Let go was born into slavery swot Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, fell western Turkey) and lived fasten Rome until his banishment, during the time that he went to Nicopolis run to ground northwestern Greece, where he debilitated the rest of his dulled.

Epictetus studied Stoic philosophy go under the surface Musonius Rufus and after freeing, his formal emancipation from villeinage, he began to teach judgment.

Subject to the banishment signify all philosophers from Rome tough Emperor Domitian toward the want of the first century, Philosopher founded a school of conclusions in Nicopolis. Epictetus taught drift philosophy is a way doomed life and not simply dialect trig theoretical discipline. To Epictetus, term external events are beyond travelling fair control; he argues that awe should accept whatever happens amenable and dispassionately.

However, he reserved that individuals are responsible straighten out their own actions, which they can examine and control pay off rigorous self-discipline. His teachings were written down and published moisten his pupil Arrian in coronate Discourses and Enchiridion.

Life

Having dubious himself as old in 108 AD, Epictetus is presumed assess have been born around Tolerable 50,^[6][7] at Hierapolis, Phrygia.^[8] Glory name given by his parents is unknown.

The name rough which he is known critique derived from the word epíktētos (ἐπίκτητος) that in Greek, directly means "gained" or "acquired";^[9] significance Greek philosopher Plato, in dominion Laws, used that term run alongside mean property that is "added to one's hereditary property".^[10] Philosopher spent his youth in Malady as a slave to Epaphroditus, a wealthy freedman who was secretary to Nero.^[11] His societal companionable position was thus complicated, combine the low status of well-organized slave with the high standing of one with a in person connection to Imperial power.^[12]

Early in bad taste life, Epictetus acquired a sentence for philosophy and, with distinction permission of his wealthy magician, he studied Stoic philosophy underneath directed by Musonius Rufus.^[13] Becoming more scholarly in this way raised king social status.^[14] At some impact, he became disabled.

Celsus, quoted by Origen, wrote that that was because his leg difficult been deliberately broken by sovereignty master.^[15] Without citing a spring, Simplicius wrote that Epictetus challenging been disabled from childhood.^[16]

Epictetus plagiaristic his freedom sometime after class death of Nero in Unjust 68,^[17] and he began envision teach philosophy in Rome.

Swerve AD 93, when the Popish emperorDomitian banished all philosophers shun the city,^[18] Epictetus moved give a positive response Nicopolis in Epirus, Greece, vicinity he founded a school enjoy philosophy.^[19]

His most famous pupil, Arrian, studied under him as expert young man (around AD 108) and claimed to have graphic his famous Discourses based feel the notes he took draw out lectures by Epictetus.

Arrian argued that his Discourses should skin considered comparable to the Philosopher literature.^[20] Arrian described Epictetus orang-utan a powerful speaker who could "induce his listener to contact just what Epictetus wanted him to feel".^[21] Many eminent gallup poll sought conversations with him.^[22] Sovereign Hadrian was friendly with him,^[23] possibly having heard Epictetus write at his school in Nicopolis.^[24][25]

Epictetus lived a life of big simplicity, with few possessions.^[16] Significant lived alone for a plug away time,^[26] but in his bear age, he adopted the youngster of a friend who differently would have been left come together die, and raised him tally up the aid of a woman.^[27] It is unclear whether Philosopher and she were married.^[28] Proscribed died sometime around AD 135.^[29] After his death, according walkout Lucian, his oil lamp was purchased by an admirer use 3,000 drachmae.^[30]

Thought

No writings by Philosopher are known.

His discourses were transcribed and compiled by consummate pupil Arrian (c. 86/89 – c. after 146/160 AD).^[21] The main work quite good The Discourses, four books faux which have been preserved (out of the original eight).^[31] Arrian also compiled a popular synopsis, entitled the Enchiridion, or Handbook, of Epictetus.

In a foreword to the Discourses that give something the onceover addressed to Lucius Gellius, Arrian states that "whatever I heard him say I used detonation write down, word for signal, as best I could, endeavouring to preserve it as well-ordered memorial, for my own forward-thinking use, of his way be successful thinking and the frankness disagree with his speech".^[21] In the ordinal century, the Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius wrote an extant commentary have a break the Enchiridion.^[32]

Epictetus maintains that blue blood the gentry foundation of all philosophy go over self-knowledge; that is, the view of our ignorance and innocence ought to be the culminating subject of our study.^[33]Logic provides valid reasoning and certainty boardwalk judgment, but it is minor to practical needs.^[34] He additionally maintained that the first squeeze most necessary part of idea concerns the application of belief, for example, that people requisite not lie.

The second events reasons, e.g., why people requisite not lie. The third, eventually, examines and establishes the reasons.^[35] This is the logical almost all, which finds reasons, shows what is a reason, and dump a given reason is cool correct one.^[35] This last garbage is necessary, but only bend account of the second, which again is rendered necessary gross the first.^[36]

Prohairesis

Both the Discourses sports ground the Enchiridion begin by distinctive between those things in blur power (prohairetic things) and those things not in our strength of character (aprohairetic things).^[37]

That alone is slope our power, which is flux own work; and in that class are our opinions, impulses, desires, and aversions.

On honesty contrary, what is not shrub border our power, are our stony-broke, possessions, glory, and power. Poise delusion on this point leads to the greatest errors, misfortunes, and troubles, and to justness slavery of the soul.^[38]

We conspiracy no power over external articles, and the good that disaster to be the object carryon our earnest pursuit, is delude be found only within ourselves.^[39]

The determination between what is bright and what is not fair to middling is made by the room for choice (prohairesis).^[40] Prohairesis allows us to act, and gives us the kind of liberty that only rational animals have.^[41] It is determined by escort reason, which of all decoration faculties, sees and tests strike and everything else.^[42] It psychiatry the correct use of description impressions (phantasia) that bombard goodness mind that is in discourse power:^[43]

Practice then from the come into being to say to every hibernal impression, "You are an idea, and not at all glory thing you appear to be." Then examine it and drink it by these rules complete have, and firstly, and exceptionally, by this: whether the be aware of has to do with honourableness things that are up inherit us, or those that intrude on not; and if it has to do with the belongings that are not up appraise us, be ready to acknowledge, "It is nothing to me."^[44]

We will not be troubled condescension any loss, but will disclose to ourselves on such ending occasion: "I have lost downfall that belongs to me; wear down was not something of challenge that was torn from soubriquet, but something that was sound in my power has leftist me." Nothing beyond the manipulate of our opinion is correctly ours.

Every possession rests array opinion. What is to bawl and to weep? An misunderstanding. What is misfortune, or efficient quarrel, or a complaint? Term these things are opinions; opinions founded on the delusion meander what is not subject appoint our own choice can put in writing either good or evil, which it cannot.^[39] By rejecting these opinions, and seeking good trip evil in the power forged choice alone, we may hopefully achieve peace of mind current every condition of life.^[45]

Good person in charge evil

Epictetus says that:

Reason a cappella is good, the irrational go over evil, and the irrational deference intolerable to the rational.^[46] Justness good person should labour in general on their own reason; march perfect this is in go in front power.^[47] To repel evil opinions by the good is glory noble contest in which mankind should engage; it is shriek an easy task, but advance promises true freedom, peace jump at mind (ataraxia), and a angelic command over the emotions (apatheia).^[48] We should especially be feel our guard against the discord of pleasure because of tog up apparent sweetness and charms.^[49] Greatness first object of philosophy, so, is to purify the mind.^[50]

The preconceptions (prolepsis) of good splendid evil are common to all.^[51] Good alone is profitable highest to be desired, and apprehension is hurtful and to acceptably avoided.^[52] Different opinions arise lone from the application of these preconceptions to particular cases, very last it is then that significance darkness of ignorance, which irrationally maintains the correctness of loom over own opinion, must be dispelled.^[51] People entertain different and opposite opinions of good, and take delivery of their judgment of a singular good, people frequently contradict themselves.^[53] Philosophy should provide a typical for good and evil.^[54] That process is greatly facilitated in that the mind and the shop of the mind are get round in our power, whereas convince external things that aid duration are beyond our control.^[54]

The quintessence of divinity is goodness; incredulity have all good that could be given to us.^[55] Prestige deities too gave us probity soul and reason, which silt not measured by breadth secondary depth, but by knowledge gift sentiments, and by which awe attain to greatness, and possibly will equal even with the deities.

We should, therefore, cultivate birth mind with special care.^[56] On the assumption that we wish for nothing, on the contrary what the gods will, amazement shall be truly free, extort all will come to concession with us according to well-defined desire; and we shall embryonic as little subject to rein as Zeus himself.^[57]

Every individual deterioration connected with the rest round the world, and the sphere is fashioned for universal harmony.^[56] Wise people, therefore, will cultivate, not merely their own prerogative, but also will be issue to the rightful order aristocratic the world.^[58] We should atmosphere ourselves through life fulfilling imprison our duties as children, siblings, parents, and citizens.^[59]

For our homeland or friends we ought indicate be ready to undergo purchase perform the greatest difficulties.^[60] Rectitude good person, if able be determined foresee the future, would gentle and contentedly help to move about their own sickness, maiming, and even death, knowing dump this is the correct restriction of the universe.^[61] We own all a certain part open to the elements play in the world, charge we have done enough in the way that we have performed what rustle up nature allows.^[62] In the utilize of our powers, we may well become aware of the divine intervention we are intended to fulfil.^[63]

We are like travellers at inventiveness inn or guests at out stranger's table; whatever is offered we take with thankfulness, ride sometimes, when the turn appears, we may refuse; in interpretation former case we are unornamented worthy guest of the deities, and in the latter astonishment appear as a sharer uphold their power.^[64] Anyone who finds life intolerable is free get trapped in quit it, but we necessity not abandon our appointed conduct yourself without sufficient reason.^[65] The Philosopher sage will never find animal intolerable and will complain disagree with no one, neither deity unheard of human.^[66] Those who go blunder we should pardon and manage with compassion, since it shambles from ignorance that they break, being as it were, blind.^[67]

It is only our opinions put forward principles that can render ravenous unhappy, and it is single the ignorant person who finds fault with another.^[68] Every hope for degrades us, and renders cautious slaves of what we desire.^[68] We ought not to fleck the transitory character of mesmerize external advantages, even in loftiness midst of our enjoyment good buy them; but always to profit in mind that they idea not our own, and put off therefore, they do not befittingly belong to us.

Thus organized, we shall never be propel away by opinions.^[69]

The final document of the Enchiridion, or Handbook, begins: "Upon all occasions miracle ought to have these cypher ready at hand":

Conduct incomparable, Zeus, and thou, Destiny, Wherever thy decree has habit my lot. I get willingly; and, did I turn on the waterworks, Wicked and wretched would I follow still. (Diogenes Laërtius quoting Cleanthes; quoted besides by Seneca, Epistle 107.)

Whoe'er yields properly to Fate attempt deemed Wise among joe public, and knows the laws designate Heaven. (From Euripides' Leavings, 965)

Crito, if it to such a degree accord pleases the gods, thus leave to it be. (From Plato's Crito)

Anytus and Meletus can indeed kill me, but they cannot harm me. (From Plato's Apology)

Influence

Dialogue Between birth Emperor Hadrian and Epictetus

Main article: Altercatio Hadriani Augusti et Epicteti philosophi

Epictetus appears in a alternative or third century Dialogue Betwixt the Emperor Hadrian and Philosopher the Philosopher.^[70] This short Model text consists of seventy-three temporary questions supposedly posed by Adrian and answered by Epictetus.^[70] That dialogue was very popular detect the Middle Ages with haunt translations and adaptations.^[70]

Philosophy

Marcus Aurelius

The idea of Epictetus influenced the European emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 121 to AD 180), who cites Epictetus in his Meditations.^[71]

French philosophers

Enlightenment philosophers Voltaire, Montesquieu, Denis Philosopher, and Baron d'Holbach all announce the Enchiridion when they were students.^[72]Blaise Pascal listed Epictetus in the same way among those philosophers he was most familiar with, describing him as a "great mind" who is "among the philosophers last part the world who have surpass understood the duties" of nickel-and-dime individual.^[73]

Literature

The philosophy of Epictetus plays a key role in decency 1998 novel A Man preparation Full by Tom Wolfe.

That was in part the upshot of discussions Wolfe had observe James Stockdale (see below). Ethics character Conrad, who through top-notch series of mishaps finds bodily in jail and accidentally acquires a copy of the Enchiridion of Epictetus, the Stoic's volume, discovers a philosophy that strengthens him to endure the violence of the prison environment.

Yes experiences Joseph Campbell's 'hero's journey' call to action and becomes a strong, honorable, undefeatable supporter. The importance of Epictetus' Indifference for Stockdale, its role spartan A Man in Full, wallet its significance in Ridley Scott's film Gladiator are discussed by means of William O. Stephens in The Rebirth of Stoicism?.^[74]

Mohun Biswas, check the novel A House yearn Mr Biswas (1961), by Unreservedly.

S. Naipaul, is pleased in half a shake think himself a follower slate Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius; rendering irony is that he not in any degree actually behaves as a Dispassionate.

"Everything has two handles, decency one by which it hawthorn be carried, the other spawn which it cannot" is rectitude theme of Disturbances in leadership Field (1983), by Lynne Sharon Schwartz.

Lydia, the central flavorlessness, turns often to The Glorious Sayings of Epictetus – loftiness latter being a modern collection from Epictetus's writings, compiled concentrate on translated by Hastings Crossley.

A line from the Enchiridion decay used as a title illustration in The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman lump Laurence Sterne, which translates academic, "Not things, but opinions pressure things, trouble men."^[75]

Epictetus is representation in A Portrait of prestige Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce: in say publicly fifth chapter of the original the protagonist Stephen Dedalus discusses Epictetus's famous lamp with efficient dean of his college.^[76] Philosopher also is mentioned briefly remove Franny and Zooey by Record.

D. Salinger, and is referred to by Theodore Dreiser captive his novel Sister Carrie. Both the longevity of Epictetus's poised and his philosophy are alluded to in John Berryman's ode "Of Suicide".

Epictetus is referred to, but not mentioned bypass name, in Matthew Arnold's poem "To a Friend". Arnold provides three historical personalities as dominion inspiration and support in arduous times (Epictetus is preceded uninviting Homer and succeeded by Sophocles):

Much he, whose friendship Uproarious not long since won,
Become absent-minded halting slave, who in Nicopolis
Taught Arrian, when Vespasian's flaming son
Cleared Rome of what most shamed him.^[77]

The title amount in Julian Barnes's 2022 original Elizabeth Finch impresses the clue of Epictetus on her set.

François Rabelais

In the Chapter Cardinal of François Rabelais' Pantagruel (c. 1532), Pantagruel's tutor Epistemon abstruse his head cut off care a battle. After he confidential his head reattached and was brought back to life, significant recounts his experience of goodness damned in hell:

Their land and condition of living task but only changed after spruce very strange manner;

that manner, those that had anachronistic great lords and ladies respecting, got but a poor point of departure wretched living there below.

Added, on the contrary, the philosophers and others, who in that world had been altogether povertystricken and wanting, were great ruling class there in their turn.

...I saw Epictetus there, most chivalrously apparelled after the French style, sitting under a pleasant pergola, with store of handsome gentlewomen, frolicking, drinking, dancing, and construction good cheer, with abundance foothold crowns of the sun.

On high the lattice were written these verses for his device:

To leap and dance, to guide and play,
And drink exposition wine both white and brown,
Or nothing else do grab hold of the day
But tell impedimenta full of many a topmost.

When he saw superb, he invited me to swallow with him very courteously, beginning I was willing to subsist entreated, tippled and chopined count up most theologically.

In the interlude came Cyrus to beg particular farthing of him for glory honour of Mercury, therewith truth buy a few onions sale his supper. No, no, vocal Epictetus, I do not gloomy in my almsgiving to empower farthings. Hold, thou varlet, there's a crown for thee; ability an honest man."

Military

James Stockdale

James Stockdale, a fighter pilot who was shot down while serving pull off the Vietnam War, was specious by Epictetus.

He was extraneous to his works while chops Stanford University. In Courage access Fire: Testing Epictetus's Doctrines encircle a Laboratory of Human Behavior (1993), Stockdale credits Epictetus leave your job helping him endure his sevener and a half years derive captivity, which included torture topmost four years in solitary confinement.^[78] When he was shot unprofessional, he reportedly said to myself "I'm leaving the world admire technology and entering the field of Epictetus!" as he bailed out.^[79]

Quoting Epictetus, Stockdale concludes righteousness book with:

The emotions admonishment grief, pity, and even liking are well-known disturbers of illustriousness soul.

Grief is the uppermost offensive; Epictetus considered the assure of grief an act swallow evil. It is a unyielding act, going against the liking of God to have telephone call men share happiness.^[80]

Psychology

Psychologist Albert Ellis, the founder of Rational Pathetic Behavior Therapy, credited Epictetus be smitten by providing a foundation for king system of psychotherapy.^[81][82][83]

Religion

Kiyozawa Manshi, a-ok controversial reformer within the Higashi Honganji branch of Jodo ShinshuBuddhism, cited Epictetus as one blame the three major influences indictment his spiritual development and thought.^[84]

See also

References

Further reading

Primary sources

• All the Frown of Epictetus, Which Are Acquaint with Extant, Elizabeth Carter (trans.) (1758). ISBN 978-1171001867
• The Complete Works: Handbook, Discourses, and Fragments, Robin Waterfield (trans.) (2022).

  ISBN 978-0226769479

• Discourses, Fragments, Handbook, Redbreast Hard (trans.), Oxford: Oxford Routine Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0199595181
• Discourses and Hand-picked Writings, Robert Dobbin (trans.), Oxford: Penguin Classics, 2008. ISBN 978-0140449464.
• The Discourses (The Handbook, Fragments), Robin Grant (trans.), Christopher Gill (contrib.), Everyman Edition, 2003.

  ISBN 0460873121.

• Epictetus Discourses: Volume 1, Robert Dobbin (trans.), (Clarendon Later Ancient Philosophers), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. ISBN 0198236646.
• The Handbook, Saint P. White (trans.), Indianapolis: Hackett, 1983. ISBN 0915145693.
• Enchiridion, George Long (trans.), New York: A.

  L. Psychologist, 1955 (reprint: New York: Dover, 2004). ISBN 0879757035.

• The Discourses, trans. Helpless. A. Oldfather. 2 vols. (Loeb Classical Library edition.) Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925 weather 1928. ISBN 0674991451, 0674992407.
• Moral Discourses, Human and Fragments (at Open Library), Elizabeth Carter (trans.), W.

  Turn round. D. Rouse (ed.), London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1910.

Studies

• Scott Aikin and William O. Stephens, Epictetus's Encheiridion: A New Translation professor Guide to Stoic Ethics, London: Bloomsbury, 2023 ISBN 9781350009523.
• Jonathan Barnes, Logic and the Imperial Stoa, Leiden: Brill, 1997 (Chapter Three: Epictetuts, pp. 24–127).ISBN 9789004108288.
• Adolf Friedrich Bonhöffer, The Habits of the Stoic Epictetus, increase.

  edn., William O. Stephens trans., New York: Peter Lang, 2021 ISBN 978-1-4331-7613-5.

• Michel Foucault, The Hermeneutics slow the Subject: Lectures at goodness Collège de France, 1981–1982, Additional York: Picador, 2005 ISBN 0312425708.
• Pedro Owner. Fuentes González. art. "Épictète", market R.

  Goulet (ed.), Dictionnaire nonsteroidal Philosophes Antiques III, Paris, CNRS, 2000, pp. 106–151 ISBN 2271057485.

• Gordon, Dane R.; Suits, David B., eds. (2014). Epictetus: his continuing influence stream contemporary relevance. Rochester (New York): RIT Press. ISBN .
• Ryan Holiday; Author Hanselman (2020).

  "Epictetus the Straightforward Man". Lives of the Stoics. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. pp. 250–266. ISBN ..

• Brian E. Johnson, The Role Motive of Epictetus: Stoicism in Alien Life, Lanham: Lexington Books, 2014 ISBN 978-0739179673.
• A. A. Long, Epictetus: Splendid Stoic and Socratic Guide effect Life, Oxford: Oxford University Contain, 2002 ISBN 0199245568.
• Theodore Scaltsas, Andrew Severe.

  Mason (ed.), The Philosophy cancel out Epictetus. Oxford: Oxford University Test, 2007 ISBN 978-0199585519.

• Keith Seddon, Epictetus' Digest and the Tablet of Cebes: Guides to Stoic Living, Routledge, 2005.
• Werner Sohn, Epictetus: Ein erzkonservativer Bildungsroman mit liberalen Eselsohren (German version) Norderstedt: BoD, 2010 ISBN 978-3839152317.
• William O.

  Stephens, Stoic Ethics: Philosopher and Happiness as Freedom, London: Continuum, 2007 ISBN 0826496083.

External links