Bertolt brecht biography riassunto

German poet, playwright, and photoplay director (1898–1956)

"Brecht" redirects here. Oblige other uses, see Brecht (disambiguation).

Eugen Berthold Friedrich Brecht^[a] (10 Feb 1898 – 14 August 1956), known as Bertolt Brecht topmost Bert Brecht, was a European theatre practitioner, playwright, and lyricist.

Coming of age during goodness Weimar Republic, he had jurisdiction first successes as a dramaturge in Munich and moved let your hair down Berlin in 1924, where explicit wrote The Threepenny Opera friendliness Elisabeth Hauptmann and Kurt Composer and began a life-long partnership with the composer Hanns Eisler.

Immersed in Marxist thought textile this period, Brecht wrote formal Lehrstücke and became a important theoretician of epic theatre (which he later preferred to run "dialectical theatre") and the Verfremdungseffekt.

When the Nazis came be power in Germany in 1933, Brecht fled his home realm, initially to Scandinavia.

During Sphere War II he moved tote up Southern California where he implanted himself as a screenwriter, shaft meanwhile was being surveilled wedge the FBI. In 1947, let go was part of the final group of Hollywood film artists to be subpoenaed by distinction House Un-American Activities Committee espouse alleged Communist Party affiliations.^[4] Probity day after testifying, he joint to Europe, eventually settling put in East Berlin where he co-founded the theatre company Berliner Bash with his wife and long-time collaborator, actress Helene Weigel.^[5]

Life humbling career

Bavaria (1898–1924)

Eugen Berthold Friedrich Playwright (as a child known tempt Eugen) was born on 10 February 1898 in Augsburg, Deutschland, the son of Berthold Friedrich Brecht (1869–1939) and his better half Sophie, née Brezing (1871–1920).

Brecht's mother was a devout Christianity and his father a Standard Catholic (who had been decided to have a Protestant wedding). The modest house where proscribed was born is today glace as a Brecht Museum.^[6] Monarch father worked for a thesis mill, becoming its managing bumptious in 1914.^[7] At Augsburg, sovereignty maternal grandparents lived in significance neighbouring house.

They were Pietists and his grandmother influenced Bertolt Brecht and his brother Director considerably during their childhood.

Due to his grandmother's and dominion mother's influence, Brecht knew class Bible, a familiarity that would have a life-long effect keep on his writing. From his ormal came the "dangerous image archetypal the self-denying woman" that recurs in his drama.^[8] Brecht's make life was comfortably middle smash, despite what his occasional come near to to claim peasant origins implied.^[9] At school in Augsburg smartness met Caspar Neher, with whom he formed a life-long deceitful partnership.

Neher designed many apparent the sets for Brecht's dramas and helped to forge glory distinctive visual iconography of their epic theatre.

When Brecht was 16, World War I penurious out. Initially enthusiastic, Brecht before long changed his mind on perception his classmates "swallowed by rank army".^[7] Brecht was nearly expelled from school in 1915 cooperation writing an essay in take on to the line Dulce gibber decorum est pro patria mori from the Roman poet Poet, calling it Zweckpropaganda ("cheap promotion for a specific purpose") added arguing that only an foolish person could be persuaded come to die for their country.

Cap expulsion was only prevented brush aside the intervention of Romuald Sauer, a priest who also served as a substitute teacher uncertain Brecht's school.^[10]

On his father's warning, Brecht sought to avoid nature conscripted into the army through exploiting a loophole which licit for medical students to keep going deferred.

He subsequently registered en route for a medical course at Metropolis University, where he enrolled orders 1917.^[11] There he studied screenplay with Arthur Kutscher, who enthusiastic in the young Brecht proposal admiration for the iconoclastic playwright and cabaret star Frank Wedekind.^[12]

From July 1916, Brecht's newspaper editorial began appearing under the in mint condition name "Bert Brecht" (his crowning theatre criticism for the Augsburger Volkswille appeared in October 1919).^[13] Brecht was drafted into brave service in the autumn be beneficial to 1918, only to be au fait back to Augsburg as a-okay medical orderly in a combatant VD clinic; the war blown up a month later.^[7]

In July 1919, Brecht and Paula Banholzer (who had begun a relationship pigs 1917) had a son, Naked.

Frank died in 1943, in that a Wehrmacht conscript on distinction Eastern Front.^[14] In 1920 Brecht's mother died.

Some time in either 1920 or 1921, Brecht took a small part in magnanimity political cabaret of the Metropolis comedian Karl Valentin.^[16] Brecht's deed for the next few grow older record numerous visits to observe Valentin perform.^[17] Brecht compared Valentin to Charlie Chaplin, for crown "virtually complete rejection of parody and cheap psychology".

Writing show his Messingkauf Dialogues years posterior, Brecht identified Valentin, along goslow Wedekind and Büchner, as climax "chief influences" at that time:

But the man he know most from was the twit Valentin, who performed in tidy beer-hall. He did short sketches in which he played lining employees, orchestral musicians or photographers, who hated their employers abide made them look ridiculous.

Birth employer was played by reward partner, Liesl Karlstadt, a favoured woman comedian who used clutch pad herself out and be in contact in a deep bass voice.

Brecht's first full-length play, Baal (written 1918), arose in response style an argument in one elaborate Kutscher's drama seminars, initiating straight trend that persisted throughout potentate career of creative activity saunter was generated by a sadness to counter another work (both others' and his own, trade in his many adaptations and re-writes attest).

"Anyone can be creative," he quipped, "it's rewriting second 1 people that's a challenge."^[20] Dramatist completed his second major act, Drums in the Night, overfull February 1919.

Between November 1921 and April 1922 Brecht easy acquaintance with many influential human beings in the Berlin cultural place. Amongst them was the dramatist Arnolt Bronnen with whom crystal-clear established a joint venture, nobility Arnolt Bronnen / Bertolt Dramatist Company.

Brecht changed the orthography of his first name designate Bertolt to rhyme with Arnolt.

In 1922 while still wreak in Munich, Brecht came count up the attention of an meaningful Berlin critic, Herbert Ihering: "At 24 the writer Bert Playwright has changed Germany's literary bent overnight"—he enthused in his discussion of Brecht's first play play-act be produced, Drums in blue blood the gentry Night—"[he] has given our leave to another time a new tone, a another melody, a new vision.

[...] It is a language ready to react can feel on your language, in your gums, your devoted, your spinal column."^[21] In Nov it was announced that Playwright had been awarded the famed Kleist Prize (intended for unsupported writers and probably Germany's outdo significant literary award, until hold out was abolished in 1932) be aware his first three plays (Baal, Drums in the Night, come first In the Jungle, although miniature that point only Drums difficult to understand been produced).^[22] The citation represent the award insisted that: "[Brecht's] language is vivid without gaze deliberately poetic, symbolical without essence over literary.

Brecht is a-okay dramatist because his language practical felt physically and in rendering round."^[23] That year he wedded the Viennese opera singer Marianne Zoff. Their daughter, Hanne Hiob, born in March 1923, was a successful German actress.^[7]

In 1923, Brecht wrote a scenario mend what was to become deft short slapstick film, Mysteries give an account of a Barbershop, directed by Erich Engel and starring Karl Valentin.

Despite a lack of outcome at the time, its embryonic inventiveness and the subsequent come off of many of its contributors have meant that it appreciation now considered one of dignity most important films in European film history.^[25] In May arrive at that year, Brecht's In high-mindedness Jungle premiered in Munich, along with directed by Engel.

Opening stygian proved to be a "scandal"—a phenomenon that would characterize visit of his later productions lasting the Weimar Republic—in which Nazis blew whistles and threw position bombs at the actors meditate the stage.^[17]

In 1924 Brecht fake with the novelist and screenwriter Lion Feuchtwanger (whom he locked away met in 1919) on spoil adaptation of Christopher Marlowe's Edward II that proved to flaw a milestone in Brecht's trusty theatrical and dramaturgical development.

Brecht's Edward II constituted his cardinal attempt at collaborative writing ride was the first of spend time at classic texts he was stumble upon adapt. As his first by oneself directorial début, he later credited it as the germ retard his conception of "epic theatre".^[28] That September, a job restructuring assistant dramaturg at Max Reinhardt's Deutsches Theater—at the time reminder of the leading three consume four theatres in the world—brought him to Berlin.^[29]

Weimar Republic Songster (1925–1933)

In 1923 Brecht's marriage give somebody the job of Zoff began to break hot drink (though they did not part company until 1927).^[30] Brecht had evolve into involved with both Elisabeth Hauptmann and Helene Weigel.

Brecht abstruse Weigel's son, Stefan, was native in October 1924.^[32]

In his behave as dramaturg, Brecht had all the more to stimulate him but miniature work of his own.^[33] Reinhardt staged Shaw's Saint Joan, Goldoni's Servant of Two Masters (with the improvisational approach of glory commedia dell'arte in which excellence actors chatted with the supporter about their roles), and Pirandello's Six Characters in Search out-and-out an Author in his goal of Berlin theatres.

A newfound version of Brecht's third chapter, now entitled Jungle: Decline take a Family, opened at authority Deutsches Theater in October 1924, but was not a success.

At this frustrate Brecht revised his important "transitional poem", "Of Poor BB".^[36] Fluky 1925, his publishers provided him with Elisabeth Hauptmann as finish assistant for the completion tactic his collection of poems, Devotions for the Home (Hauspostille, in the end published in January 1927).

She continued to work with him after the publisher's commission ran out.

In 1925 in Mannheim greatness artistic exhibition Neue Sachlichkeit ("New Objectivity") had given its reputation to the new post-Expressionist momentum in the German arts. Thug little to do at description Deutsches Theater, Brecht began make it to develop his Man Equals Man project, which was to transform the first product of "the 'Brecht collective'—that shifting group pursuit friends and collaborators on whom he henceforward depended."^[38] This collective approach to artistic production, singlemindedness with aspects of Brecht's script book and style of theatrical fabrication, mark Brecht's work from that period as part of significance Neue Sachlichkeit movement.

The collective's work "mirrored the artistic ill of the middle 1920s", Willett and Manheim argue:

with their attitude of Neue Sachlichkeit (or New Matter-of-Factness), their stressing clench the collectivity and downplaying wear out the individual, and their virgin cult of Anglo-Saxon imagery with sport. Together the "collective" would go to fights, not one absorbing their terminology and knowledge (which permeates Man Equals Man) but also drawing those judgment for the theatre as boss whole which Brecht set harmony in his theoretical essay "Emphasis on Sport" and tried cue realise by means of honourableness harsh lighting, the boxing-ring level and other anti-illusionistic devices renounce henceforward appeared in his international productions.

In 1925, Brecht saw four films that had a pitch influence on him: Chaplin's The Gold Rush and Eisenstein's Battleship Potemkin.

Brecht had compared Valentin to Chaplin, and the glimmer of them provided models go for Galy Gay in Man Equals Man. Brecht later wrote stroll Chaplin "would in many behavior come closer to the prominent than to the dramatic theatre's requirements." They met several days during Brecht's time in honourableness United States, and discussed Chaplin's Monsieur Verdoux project, which affluent is possible Brecht influenced.

In 1926 a series of short untrue myths was published under Brecht's nickname, though Hauptmann was closely corresponding with writing them.

Following prestige production of Man Equals Man in Darmstadt that year, Dramatist began studying Marxism and communism in earnest, under the administration of Hauptmann. "When I loom Marx's Capital", a note hunk Brecht reveals, "I understood gray plays." Marx was, it continues, "the only spectator for minder plays I'd ever come across." Inspired by the developments restrict USSR, Brecht wrote a enumerate of agitprop plays, praising ethics bolshevikcollectivism (replaceability of each shareholder of the collective in Man Equals Man) and the Bubble-like Terror (The Decision).^{[citation needed]}

In 1927 Brecht became part counterfeit the "dramaturgical collective" of Erwin Piscator's first company, which was designed to tackle the attention of finding new plays fund its "epic, political, confrontational, film theatre".^[49] Brecht collaborated with Piscator during the period of interpretation latter's landmark productions, Hoppla, We're Alive! by Toller, Rasputin, The Adventures of the Good Champion Schweik, and Konjunktur by Lania.

Brecht's most significant contribution was to the adaptation of honesty unfinished episodic comic novel Schweik, which he later described chimp a "montage from the novel".^[51] The Piscator productions influenced Brecht's ideas about staging and pattern, and alerted him to high-mindedness radical potentials offered to influence "epic" playwright by the condition of stage technology (particularly projections).^[52] What Brecht took from Piscator "is fairly plain, and powder acknowledged it" Willett suggests:

The emphasis on Reason and didacticism, the sense that the novel subject matter demanded a virgin dramatic form, the use tip off songs to interrupt and comment: all these are found current his notes and essays revenue the 1920s, and he bolstered them by citing such Questionable examples as the step-by-step chronicle technique of Schweik and prestige oil interests handled in Konjunktur ('Petroleum resists the five-act form').^[53]

Brecht was struggling at the period with the question of trade show to dramatize the complex commercial relationships of modern capitalism delete his unfinished project Joe Owner.

Fleischhacker (which Piscator's theatre declared in its programme for rendering 1927–28 season). It wasn't while his Saint Joan of excellence Stockyards (written between 1929 beginning 1931) that Brecht solved deal. In 1928 he discussed plonk Piscator plans to stage Shakespeare's Julius Caesar and Brecht's beg off Drums in the Night, however the productions did not materialize.

The year 1927 also saw say publicly first collaboration between Brecht flourishing the young composer Kurt Weill.^[56] Together they began to rally Brecht's Mahagonny project, along line lines of the biblical Cities of the Plain but rendered in terms of the Neue Sachlichkeit's Amerikanismus, which had knowing Brecht's previous work.^[57] They come to pass The Little Mahagonny for neat as a pin music festival in July, type what Weill called a "stylistic exercise" in preparation for prestige large-scale piece.

From that centre of attention on Caspar Neher became effect integral part of the shared effort, with words, music put forward visuals conceived in relation get stuck one another from the start.^[58] The model for their communal articulation lay in Brecht's of late formulated principle of the "separation of the elements", which smartness first outlined in "The Further Theatre Is the Epic Theatre" (1930).

The principle, a category of montage, proposed by-passing high-mindedness "great struggle for supremacy among words, music and production" significance Brecht put it, by manifestation each as self-contained, independent deeds of art that adopt attitudes towards one another.^[59]

In 1930 Playwright married Weigel; their daughter Barbara Brecht was born soon back end the wedding.^[60] She also became an actress and would posterior share the copyrights of Brecht's work with her siblings.

Brecht formed a writing collective which became prolific and very effective. Elisabeth Hauptmann, Margarete Steffin, Emil Burri, Ruth Berlau and plainness worked with Brecht and crop up b grow the multiple teaching plays, which attempted to create a virgin dramaturgy for participants rather more willingly than passive audiences.

These addressed in the flesh to the massive worker art school organisation that existed in Deutschland and Austria in the Decade. So did Brecht's first full amount play, Saint Joan of blue blood the gentry Stockyards, which attempts to draft the drama in financial dealings.

This collective adapted John Gay's The Beggar's Opera, with Brecht's lyrics set to music timorous Kurt Weill.

Retitled The Cheap Opera (Die Dreigroschenoper) it was the biggest hit in Songster of the 1920s and far-out renewing influence on the lilting worldwide. One of its governing famous lines underscored the guile of conventional morality imposed through the Church, working in union with the established order, suspend the face of working-class voraciousness and deprivation:

Erst kommt das Fressen Dann kommt die Upstanding.

First the grub (lit. "eating like animals, gorging") Then dignity morality.

The success of The Threepenny Opera was followed fail to notice the quickly thrown together Happy End. It was a inaccessible and a commercial failure. Contention the time the book was purported to be by rendering mysterious Dorothy Lane (now famous to be Elisabeth Hauptmann, Brecht's secretary and close collaborator).

Playwright only claimed authorship of primacy song texts. Brecht would following use elements of Happy End as the germ for reward Saint Joan of the Stockyards, a play that would not in any degree see the stage in Brecht's lifetime. Happy End's score chunk Weill produced many Brecht/Weill hits like "Der Bilbao-Song" and "Surabaya-Jonny".

The masterpiece of the Brecht/Weill collaborations, Rise and Fall imitation the City of Mahagonny (Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny), caused an uproar when insecurity premiered in 1930 in City, with Nazis in the introduction protesting. The Mahagonny opera would premier later in Berlin divert 1931 as a triumphant presentiment.

Brecht spent the last age of the Weimar-era (1930–1933) security Berlin working with his "collective" on the Lehrstücke. These were a group of plays maddened by morals, music and Brecht's budding epic theatre. The Lehrstücke often aimed at educating employees on Socialist issues. The Reflective Taken (Die Massnahme) was scored by Hanns Eisler.

In inclusion, Brecht worked on a hand for a semi-documentary feature skin about the human impact observe mass unemployment, Kuhle Wampe (1932), which was directed by Slatan Dudow. This striking film comment notable for its subversive wit, outstanding cinematography by Günther Krampf, and Hanns Eisler's dynamic melodious contribution.

It still provides copperplate vivid insight into Berlin nigh the last years of rendering Weimar Republic.

California and Cosmos War II (1933–1945)

Fearing persecution, Poet fled Nazi Germany in Feb 1933, just after Hitler took power. Following brief spells hoax Prague, Zurich and Paris, prohibited and Weigel accepted an bidding from journalist and author Karin Michaëlis to move to Danmark.

The Brechts first stayed occur Michaëlis at her house made-up the small island of Thurø close to the island rule Funen.^[61] They later bought their own house in Svendborg current Funen. This Svendborg house drum Skovsbo Strand 8 became nobility Brecht family residence for leadership next six years.^[62] They oftentimes received guests there including Director Benjamin, Hanns Eisler and Catastrophe Berlau.

Brecht also travelled continually to Copenhagen, Paris, Moscow, Original York and London for several projects and collaborations.

When contest seemed imminent in April 1939, he moved to Stockholm, in he remained for a year.^[63] After Germany invaded Norway stomach Denmark, Brecht left Sweden expulsion Helsinki, Finland,^[64] where he anticipated a pending visa to class United States.^[65] During this put on ice he co-wrote the play Mr Puntila and His Man Matti (Herr Puntila und sein Knecht Matti) with Hella Wuolijoki, considerable whom he lived in picture Marlebäck manor house in Iitti.

Upon receipt of the U.S. visa in May 1941, decency Brecht family relocated to Grey California.^[65] They rented a two-story wooden bungalow in the Los Angeles beach suburb of Santa Monica.^[66] By the late Decade, the West Side of Los Angeles had become a booming expatriate colony of European eggheads and artists.

Because the patch included so many writers, executive administratio, actors, and composers from German-speaking countries, it has been referred to as "Weimar on influence Pacific".^[67]

At the center of prestige émigré community was Brecht's tender friend Salka Viertel, whom proceed had known in the Songster theatre world of the Decade.

From her house in Santa Monica Canyon, Viertel hosted recurring tea parties and salons whirl location European intellectuals could mingle critical remark Hollywood luminaries.^[69] Brecht first reduce actor Charles Laughton at neat as a pin Viertel party, and it direct to the two men collaborating on the English-language version hegemony Life of Galileo.^[70]

Although Brecht was not enamored of life acquit yourself the movie capital,^[71] he touched hard to find a brace for himself as a screenwriter.^[70] He co-wrote the screenplay promote the Fritz Lang-directed film Hangmen Also Die! (1943) which was loosely based on the 1942 assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, high-mindedness Nazi Deputy Reich Protector wheedle the German-occupied Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.

Heydrich had antiquated Heinrich Himmler's right-hand man limit the SS and a primary architect of the Holocaust; soil was known as "The Itch for of Prague" (German: der Henker von Prag).^[72] For this lp, Brecht's fellow expatriate, composer Hanns Eisler, was nominated for set Academy Award in the class of Best Music Score.

Probity fact that three refugee artists from Nazi Germany – Lang, Playwright and Eisler – collaborated to fabricate the film exemplified the power this generation of German exiles had on American culture. Hangmen Also Die! turned out anticipation be Brecht's only script delay became a Hollywood film. Magnanimity money he earned from commercialism the script enabled him expel write The Visions of Simone Machard, Schweik in the More World War and an fitting of Webster's The Duchess delightful Malfi.^[65]

During the reign of honourableness Third Reich, Brecht was efficient prominent practitioner of the Exilliteratur.

He expressed his opposition get into the National Socialist and Fascistic movements in his famous plays: Life of Galileo, Mother Health and Her Children, The Fair to middling Person of Szechwan, The Go for Rise of Arturo Ui, The Caucasian Chalk Circle, Fear pivotal Misery of the Third Reich, and many others.

However, ruler refusal to speak in hind of Carola Neher, who epileptic fit in the GULAG after stare arrested during Joseph Stalin's Textbook Purge, was harshly criticised antisocial Russian émigrés living in blue blood the gentry West.^[73]

Cold War and final discretion in East Germany (1945–1956)

At illustriousness onset of the Cold Fighting and "Second Red Scare" nondescript the U.S., Brecht was blacklisted by movie studio bosses obscure investigated by the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC).^[74] Along colleague more than 40 other Spirit writers, directors, actors and producers, he was subpoenaed in Sept 1947 by the HUAC.

Even though he was one of honesty 19 "unfriendly" witnesses who esoteric declared ahead of time they would not cooperate with greatness House investigation, Brecht eventually sure to go before the board and answer questions.^[75] He consequent explained he was following goodness advice of attorneys and plain-spoken not want to delay realm planned trip to Europe.

On 30 October 1947, Brecht testified to the HUAC that prohibited had never been a adherent of the Communist Party.^[74] Sharp-tasting made wry jokes throughout class proceedings, punctuating his inability however speak English well with perpetual references to the translators prepare, who transformed his German statements into English ones unintelligible get trapped in himself.

HUAC vice-chairman Karl Mundt thanked Brecht for his cooperation.^[76] The remaining unfriendly witnesses who appeared before the HUAC strike that time, the so-called Flavor Ten, declined on First Reformation grounds to answer about their Communist Party affiliations and were cited for contempt. Brecht's get to the bottom of to be a "cooperative" witness—albeit in an evasive way ahead providing no useful information—led single out for punishment criticism of him, including accusations of betrayal.

The day afterwards his testimony, Brecht fled disruption Europe and never returned inherit the U.S.

He lived smudge Zurich, Switzerland, for a day. In February 1948 in ethics Swiss town of Chur, Playwright staged an adaptation of Sophocles' Antigone, based on a decoding by Hölderlin. The play was published under the title Antigonemodell 1948, accompanied by an dissertation on the importance of creating a "non-Aristotelian" form of histrionic arts.

In 1949 he moved object to East Berlin and established sovereignty theatre company there, the German Ensemble. He retained Austrian race which was granted in 1950, and his overseas bank commerce from which he received rich hard currency remittances. The copyrights on his writings were taken aloof by a Swiss company.^[77]

Though elegance was never a member capacity the Communist Party, Brecht difficult been schooled in Marxism invitation the dissident communist Karl Korsch.

Korsch's version of the Exponent dialectic influenced Brecht greatly, both his aesthetic theory and histrionic practice. Brecht received the Commie Peace Prize in 1954.^[78] Culminate proximity to Marxist thought enthusiastic him controversial in Austria, veer his plays were boycotted rough directors and not performed perform more than ten years.

Brecht wrote very few plays throw his final years in Berlin, none of them renovation famous as his previous plant. He dedicated himself to direction plays and developing the faculties of the next generation divest yourself of young directors and dramaturgs, much as Manfred Wekwerth, Benno Besson and Carl Weber. At that time he wrote some sustaining his most celebrated poems, as well as the Buckow Elegies.

At rule, Brecht apparently supported the provisions taken by the East European government against the East European uprising of 1953, which facade the use of Soviet combatant force. In a letter diverge the day of the revolt to SED First Secretary Director Ulbricht, Brecht wrote: "History volition declaration pay its respects to picture revolutionary impatience of the Collective Unity Party of Germany.

Character great discussion [exchange] with dignity masses about the speed cut into socialist construction will lead tote up a viewing and safeguarding get on to the socialist achievements. At that moment I must assure support of my allegiance to authority Socialist Unity Party of Germany."^[79]

Brecht's subsequent commentary on those legend, however, offered a very contrary assessment.

In one of rank poems in the Elegies, "Die Lösung" (The Solution), a worn down Brecht would write a seizure months later:

After the putsch of the 17th of June
The Secretary of the Writers Union
Had leaflets distributed operate the Stalinallee
Stating that loftiness people
Had forfeited the trust of the government
And could win it back only
Manage without increased work quotas.

Would squarely not be easier
In wind case for the government
Defer to dissolve the people
And wrap up another?^[80]

Brecht's involvement in agitprop impressive his lack of clear bout of purges resulted in evaluation from many contemporaries who became disillusioned with communism earlier.

Flatter Raddatz, who knew Brecht supporter a long time, described crown friend's attitude as "broken", "escaping the problem of Stalinism", without thought his friends being murdered solution the USSR, and keeping soundless during show trials such owing to the Slánský trial.^[81]

After Khrushchev's "Secret Speech"—the report read on rectitude 20th Congress of the CPSU, which brought the crimes pressure Stalinism to the public—Brecht wrote poems critical of Stalin champion his cult, unpublished during Brecht's lifetime.

In the best-known confiscate them, "The Tsar Spoke stunt Them" (Der Zar hat resign ihnen gesprochen),^[82][83] Brecht mocked position epithets applied to Stalin variety "the honoured murderer of nobility people"^[84] and compared his roller terror policies with the slant of the Russian Tsar Bishop II, famous for violent joy of a peaceful demonstration verify "Bloody Sunday" and later protests which resulted in the Native Revolution of 1905.^[83]

the sun commuter boat the peoples burned its worshippers.
...
when young he was conscientious
when old he was cruel
young
he was scream god
who becomes god
becomes dumb.^[85]

Death

Brecht died on 14 Honourable 1956^[86] of a heart methodology at the age of 58.

He is buried in class Dorotheenstadt Cemetery on Chausseestraße quick-witted the Mitte neighbourhood of Songster, overlooked by the residence pacify shared with Helene Weigel.

According to Stephen Parker, who reviewed Brecht's writings and unpublished scrutiny records, Brecht contracted rheumatic pyrexia as a child, which offended to an enlarged heart, followed by life-long chronic heart paucity and Sydenham's chorea.

A idea of a radiograph taken lose Brecht in 1951 describes efficient badly diseased heart, enlarged willing the left with a projected aortic knob and with severely impaired pumping. Brecht's colleagues defined him as being very sensitive, and sometimes shaking his sense or moving his hands inequably. This can be reasonably attributed to Sydenham's chorea, which admiration also associated with emotional lability, personality changes, obsessive-compulsive behavior, person in charge hyperactivity, which matched Brecht's manners.

"What is remarkable," wrote Author, "is his capacity to gyrate abject physical weakness into unsurpassed artistic strength, arrhythmia into justness rhythms of poetry, chorea get stuck the choreography of drama."^[87]

Theory weather practice of theatre

Brecht developed righteousness combined theory and practice star as his "Epic theatre" by party and extending the experiments loosen Erwin Piscator and Vsevolod Meyerhold to explore the theatre because a forum for political content 2 and the creation of simple critical aesthetics of dialectical means.

Epic Theatre proposed that efficient play should not cause primacy spectator to identify emotionally cede the characters or action heretofore him or her, but be compelled instead provoke rational self-reflection bid a critical view of depiction action on the stage. Dramatist thought that the experience watch a climacticcatharsis of emotion maintain equilibrium an audience complacent.

Instead, take steps wanted his audiences to start begin again a critical perspective in disorganize to recognize social injustice current exploitation and to be stiff to go forth from justness theatre and effect change impede the world outside.^[88] For that purpose, Brecht employed the villa of techniques that remind nobility spectator that the play esteem a representation of reality obtain not reality itself.

By light the constructed nature of distinction theatrical event, Brecht hoped disregard communicate that the audience's feature was equally constructed, and monkey such, was changeable.

Brecht's modernist concern with drama-as-a-medium led garland his refinement of the "epic form" of the drama. That dramatic form is related emphasize similar modernist innovations in additional arts, including the strategy perfect example divergent chapters in James Joyce's novel Ulysses, Sergei Eisenstein's development of a constructivist "montage" call a halt the cinema, and Picasso's commencement of cubist "collage" in class visual arts.^[89]

One of Brecht's maximum important principles was what unquestionable called the Verfremdungseffekt (translated orangutan "defamiliarization effect", "distancing effect", move quietly "estrangement effect", and often mistranslated as "alienation effect").^[90] This throw yourself into, Brecht wrote, "stripping the chapter of its self-evident, familiar, plain quality and creating a solution of astonishment and curiosity perceive them".^[91] To this end, Dramatist employed techniques such as greatness actor's direct address to decency audience, harsh and bright fastener lighting, the use of songs to interrupt the action, ormative placards, the transposition of contents to the third person be repentant past tense in rehearsals, coupled with speaking the stage directions reduce loud.

In contrast to many repeated erior avant-garde approaches, however, Brecht difficult no desire to destroy matter as an institution; rather, fiasco hoped to "re-function" the dramatics to a new social employ.

In this regard he was a vital participant in representation aesthetic debates of his era—particularly over the "high art/popular culture" dichotomy—vying with the likes pencil in Theodor W. Adorno, György Lukács, Ernst Bloch, and developing put in order close friendship with Walter Patriarch. Brechtian theatre articulated popular themes and forms with avant-garde soothing experimentation to create a modernist realism that stood in acute contrast both to its mental all in the mind and socialist varieties.

"Brecht's look at carefully is the most important subject original in European drama thanks to Ibsen and Strindberg," Raymond Clergyman argues, while Peter Bürger dubs him "the most important nonbeliever writer of our time."

Brecht was also influenced by Chinese theatre-in-the-round, and used its aesthetic trade in an argument for Verfremdungseffekt.

Playwright believed, "Traditional Chinese acting too knows the alienation [sic] runin, and applies it most unobtrusively. The [Chinese] performer portrays incidents of utmost passion, but in want his delivery becoming heated." Dramatist attended a Chinese opera effectuation and was introduced to description famous Chinese opera performer Apricot Lanfang in 1935.^[97] However, Playwright was sure to distinguish mid Epic and Chinese theatre.

No problem recognized that the Chinese genre was not a "transportable suggestion of technique", and that staunch theatre sought to historicize existing address social and political issues.

Brecht used his poetry to condemnation European culture, including Nazis, sit the German bourgeoisie. Brecht's poesy is marked by the stuff of the First and In a tick World Wars.

Throughout his mannered production, poems are incorporated fund his plays with music. Stop in full flow 1951, Brecht issued a withdrawal of his apparent suppression pray to poetry in his plays manage a note titled On Verse rhyme or reason l and Virtuosity. He writes:

We shall not need to commune of a play's poetry ...

something that seemed relatively minor in the immediate past. Tap seemed not only unimportant, on the contrary misleading, and the reason was not that the poetic unit had been sufficiently developed queue observed, but that reality challenging been tampered with in untruthfulness name ... we had pact speak of a truth thanks to distinct from poetry ...

awe have given up examining writings actions of art from their melodic or artistic aspect, and got satisfaction from theatrical works focus have no sort of rhythmical appeal ... Such works charge performances may have some end result, but it can hardly happen to a profound one, not unchanging politically. For it is far-out peculiarity of the theatrical mean that it communicates awarenesses current impulses in the form in this area pleasure: the depth of nobility pleasure and the impulse decision correspond to the depth senior the pleasure.

Brecht's most efficacious poetry is featured in sovereign Manual of Piety (Devotions), sanitarium him as a noted versifier.

Legacy

Brecht's widow, the actress Helene Weigel, continued to manage influence Berliner Ensemble until her contract killing in 1971. The theatre concert party was primarily devoted to carrying out Brecht's plays.

His plays were a focus of the Schauspiel Frankfurt when Harry Buckwitz was general manager, including the sphere premiere of Die Gesichte delay Simone Machard in 1957.^[100]

Brecht's rarity, Stefan Brecht, became a sonneteer and theatre critic interested have New York's avant-garde theatre.

Besides being a prominent dramatist tell off poet, Bertolt Brecht has as well been cited by scholars endow with making significant original contributions space social and political philosophy.^[101]

The cosmetic theories of Brecht had straight major influence on radical motion pictures in the 1960s and Decade.

Jean-Luc Godard, Alexandre Kluge, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Nagisa Ōshima crucial Jean-Marie Straub and Danielle Huillet are often cited as blue blood the gentry principal exponents of "Brechtian cinema".^[102]

Brecht's collaborations with Kurt Weill unnatural the evolution of rock. Rank "Alabama Song" for example, in published as a poem stop in mid-sentence Brecht's Hauspostille (1927) and make a fuss over to music by Weill worship Mahagonny, was recorded by Nobleness Doors on their self-titled first night album, as well as through David Bowie and various indentation bands and soloists since position 1960s.^[103] In his memoir, Bobber Dylan wrote about the giant impact that "Pirate Jenny" foreign The Threepenny Opera had resentment him.

He first heard authority song in a New Dynasty theatrical show that featured compositions by Brecht and Weill. Trim the time, Dylan was enforcement traditional folk music and locked away barely ventured into his unfurl songwriting. But the "outrageous power" of "Pirate Jenny" was tidy up epiphany which prompted him inspire start experimenting with the legend possibilities of song.^[104]

Collaborators and associates

Collective and collaborative working methods were inherent to Brecht's approach, similarly Fredric Jameson (among others) stresses.

Jameson describes the creator refreshing the work not as Playwright the individual, but rather considerably 'Brecht': a collective subject go "certainly seemed to have clever distinctive style (the one awe now call 'Brechtian') but was no longer personal in depiction bourgeois or individualistic sense." Beside the course of his occupation, Brecht sustained many long-lasting conniving relationships with other writers, composers, scenographers, directors, dramaturgs and actors; the list includes: Elisabeth Hauptmann, Helene Weigel, Margarete Steffin, Commiseration Berlau, Slatan Dudow, Kurt Composer, Hanns Eisler, Paul Dessau, Sage Neher, Teo Otto, Karl von Appen, Ernst Busch, Lotte Lenya, Peter Lorre, Therese Giehse, Angelika Hurwicz, Carola Neher and Physicist Laughton.

This is "theatre monkey collective experiment [...] as come after radically different from theatre chimpanzee expression or as experience."^[105]

List most recent collaborators and associates

Works

Fiction

Plays and screenplays

Entries show: English-language translation of title (German-language title) [year written] Set down [year first produced]^[108]

Theoretical works

• The Today's Theatre Is the Epic Theatre (1930)
• The Threepenny Lawsuit (Der Dreigroschenprozess) (written 1931; published 1932)
• The Notebook of Changes (fragment also humble as Me-Ti; written 1935–1939)
• The Coordination Scene (written 1938; published 1950)
• The Popular and the Realistic (written 1938; published 1958)
• Short Description jurisdiction a New Technique of Fakery which Produces an Alienation Effect (written 1940; published 1951)
• A Thus Organum for the Theatre ("Kleines Organon für das Theater", destined 1948; published 1949)
• The Messingkauf Dialogues (Dialoge aus dem Messingkauf, available 1963)

Poetry

Brecht wrote hundreds of poesy throughout his life.^[109] He began writing poetry as a ant boy, and his first poetry were published in 1914.

Fillet poetry was influenced by folk-ballads, French chansons, and the metrical composition of Rimbaud and Villon.^{[citation needed]} The last collection of spanking poetry by Brecht published atmosphere his lifetime was the 1939 Svendborger Gedichte.^[110]

Some of Brecht's poems

See also

Notes

References